Glossary
machine reductionism: the view that we can understand human behaviour in terms of the operation of machines, particularly computers
magnocellular layer: a layer of cells in the lateral geniculate nucleus
major depression: a common mood disorder characterised by a persistent lowering of mood, loss of interest in usual activities and diminished ability to experience pleasure majority influence: social influence effect due to exposure to the opinions of a majority or a majority in one’s own group. See also conformity
malapropism: a speech error in which the target and error sound similar, especially in the initial and subsequent sounds
mammillary bodies: hypothalamic nuclei
Mann-Whitney test: a test of whether scores from two independent samples differ. It can be used in place of the independent t-test when its assumptions have not been met
mastery goals (also called learning goals) which focus on gaining competence or mastering a new set of knowledge or skills
matched design: an experimental design involving different groups of entities that have been matched to control for extraneous variables. An example would be two groups of people in which each person in one group has a corresponding person in the second group who has an identical IQ score
mean: the average of a set of observations. It is the sum of all scores divided by the number of scores
means-end analysis: a problem-solving heuristic (Newell and Simon, 1961) which breaks the problem down into a series of sub-goals on the road to the solution, with each sub-goal becoming an end in itself
measurement error: the discrepancy between the numbers used to represent the thing that we’re measuring and the actual value of the thing we’re measuring (i.e. the value we would get if we could measure it directly)
medial geniculate nucleus: a region of the thalamus
median preoptic nucleus: a region of the hypothalamus
median: the middle score (if there are an odd number of scores) or the average of the two middle scores (if there are an even number of scores) in a set of scores ordered by their magnitude
meiosis: the cellular division between gametes that results in each gamete (sperm or egg) having half the full complement of chromosomes (haploid) (see also mitosis)
melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH): a neuropeptide released by the hypothalamus membership group: a group to which one belongs based on some objective external criterion
meninges: the meninges consist of three layers: the dura mater, the arachnoid mater and the pia mater. The primary function of the meninges and of the cerebrospinal fluid is to protect the central nervous system
mental lexicon: a mental dictionary which stores information about words known to the person in question, including orthographic, phonological and semantic information
mental set: a term from Gestalt psychology which refers to a tendency to continue applying a previously successful strategy to a series of problems even when it becomes inappropriate mere exposure effect: that repeated exposure to an object or person will influence levels of attraction or liking
mesencephalon: midbrain; divided into two - the tectum and tegmentum
mesolimbic pathway: a dopamine pathway that links the ventral tegmental area to the nucleus accumbens
messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA): mRNA is transcribed from a DNA template, and carries coding information from the nucleus to the sites of protein synthesis
metabolites: the converted substance of a neurotransmitter or other chemical
metabotropic receptors: a type of receptor which, when activated, triggers a series of intracellular events (e.g. second messengers) that opens ion channels
metamemory: children’s ability to think about memory processes
metarepresentation: representations about other representations. For example, knowledge about memory processes would involve metamemory
metencephalon: a brain region composed of the pons and the cerebellum
method of loci: an ancient technique for remembering information by ‘depositing’ components of that information at various imaginal locations and subsequently recovering the information from those same locations
microgenetic study: a method of data collection where detailed observations of the process of change are made
microtubules: fibres that carry neurotransmitter vesicles to the nerve terminal
min strategy: a strategy identified by Siegler that involves counting from the larger number when adding up two numbers
mindblindness: a term used by Baron-Cohen to describe the inability of individuals with autism to understand the viewpoints of others
mindmindedness: a term used to describe the way adults comment to an infant on what they believe the infant is thinking minimal group paradigm: an experimental procedure for creating groups on very arbitrary criteria. Used to look at the effect of social categorisation on behaviour minority influence: social influence effect due to exposure to the opinions of a minority or a minority in one’s own group
mitochondria: a specialised subunit of the cell that provides the cell’s energy
mitosis: the process by which a cell duplicates the chromosomes in its nucleus in order to generate two identical daughter nuclei
mixed design: An experimental design using at least two predictor variables, at least one of which is measured using different participants and at least one of which is measured using the same participants
mixed-plot design: see mixed design
mnemonic techniques: specific devices to help you memorise lists of words
modal model of memory: the model of memory posited by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) which hypothesises the linear transmission of information from sensory through short-term to long-term memory, with rehearsal playing a major part in the transfer from short- to long-term memory
MODE model: stands for Motivation and Opportunities as Determinants. A model that proposes how attitudes affect behaviour through both deliberative processing and spontaneous processing
mode: the most frequent score in a set of observations modelling: the tendency for people to acquire new ways of behaving based on the observation of others’ behaviours. See also social learning theory
molecular genetics: the field of biology which studies the structure and function of genes at a molecular level
monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs): a group of drugs used to treat symptoms of depression (such as phenelzine and tranylcypromine)
monocular cues: cues such as texture gradient and linear perspective which rely on only one eye and which indicate depth or distance
mood disorders: those diagnosable psychological disorders such as Major Depression or Bipolar Disorder that are characterised by disturbances in normal levels of mood
mood-dependent memory: a variant of context-dependent memory in which the person’s mood plays the role of context. That is, information acquired in a given mood is best recalled when in the same mood
moral realism: judgements of moral reasoning that are based on the consequences of an action, often the amount of damage
moral subjectivism: judgements of moral reasoning that are based on the intentions or motivations of the person
morphosyntax: the linguistic rules concerned with the order of words in a sentence and the rules concerned with grammatical elements of words
motion parallax: the apparent movement of a stationary objects when the observer is moving. The apparent relative movement of two or more objects is a cue to depth or distance
motivated forgetting: the Freudian idea that forgetting occurs because the person wants to forget, usually because the information is unpleasant and even traumatic in nature
motivated tactician: that people have many cognitive strategies available for them to choose based on their own needs, motives and goals
motivation: the process of starting, directing, and maintaining physical and psychological activities; includes mechanisms involved in preferences for one activity over another and the vigour and persistence of responses
Muller-Lyer illusion: the illusion in which two lines of equal length are seen as being of different lengths when the extremities of one have arrow heads which point towards the centre while the other has arrow heads which point away from the centre
multi-dimensional approach: an approach to understanding the concept of attitude that focuses on the central roles of cognition, affect and behaviour important in the evaluation of an object, person or issue
multimodal: a set of data is said to be multimodal if there are more than two values of the mode
multiple intelligences: conceived by Howard Gardner, multiple intelligences are seven different ways to demonstrate intellectual ability
multiple necessary schemata: conceptions that causes operate together to produce an effect. Important when events are unusual or extreme
multiple resource theory: the idea that cognitive processing is both limited and dependent on several processing resources, each of which is specific to tasks of a particular kind, e.g. visual
multiple sufficient causal schemata: conceptions that any number of causes acting by themselves can produce the same effect
musical intelligence: ability to produce and appreciate music
myelencephalon: part of the hindbrain
myelin: the electrically insulating layer that surrounds the axons. It is an outgrowth of glial cells