Glossary
early selection models: models in selective auditory attention which posit the existence of a selective filter or similar device early in auditory processing
echoic memory: a very brief auditory memory for sensory information, analogous to iconic memory
ecological validity: evidence that the results of a study,
experiment or test can be applied, and allow inferences, to real world conditions
ecological validity: this type of validity refers to how well a study can be related to or reflects everyday, real life
effect size: an objective and (usually) standardised measure of the magnitude of an observed effect. Examples include Cohen’s, d, Pearson’s correlation coefficient, r and odds ratios
efferent nerves: nerves carry impulses away from the central nervous system to effectors such as muscles or glands
effortful processing: processing which requires attention and conscious awareness and which can be interrupted. See controlled processing
ego: the aspect of personality involved in self-preservation activities and in directing instinctual drives and urges into appropriate channels. In Freudian theory, the function of the ego is to find a balance between primitive drives, morals, and reality while satisfying the id and superego
egocentricity: self-centred behaviour/actions/thoughts
egocentrism: a term used by Piaget to describe the tendency to see the world from one’s own perspective
elaboration likelihood model: Petty and Cacioppo’s model of attitude change in which when people attend carefully to the persuasive message they engage in central processing, but otherwise they engage in peripheral processing
elaboration mnemonics: memory techniques which rely on linking the to-be-remembered material to rhymes, visual images or other materials in as salient a way as possible with the purpose of aiding retrieval of the material
electrical synapse: a link between two neurons at a gap junction in which electrical conduction can be transmitted from one cell to another. Allows very fast signalling
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): a form of treatment for mental health problems where an electric current is passed very briefly (usually 0.5 seconds) between two electrodes attached to the head of the patient to induce a convulsive seizure similar to an epileptic fit
electro-dermal activity: a term used to describe changes in the skin's ability to conduct electricity
electroencephalogram (EEG): a tool for the measurement of the electrical activity of the brain by recording from electrodes placed on the scalp
electrostatic pressure: an electrical force between ions across the membrane
emotional experience: a complex pattern of changes, including physiological arousal, feelings, cognitive processes and behavioural reactions, made in response to a situation perceived to be personally significant
emotional intelligence: type of intelligence defined as the abilities to perceive, appraise and express emotions accurately and appropriately, to use emotions to facilitate thinking, to understand and analyse emotions, to use emotional knowledge effectively, and to regulate one's emotions to promote both emotional and intellectual growth
empathy: emotional state that occurs when one witnesses the emotional state of another person. In some forms of holistic therapy, empathy is the ability to understand and experience the client’s own feelings and personal meanings
empathy–altruism hypothesis: Batson’s ideas that experiencing empathy for another person in need provides the motivation for altruistic behaviourempiricist: a person who believes that experience has the strongest effect on ideas and development
encoding specificity principle: the idea that remembering material depends on the overlap between the conditions at retrieval and the conditions when the memory trace was laid down
encoding: the processes by which to-be-remembered material is put into memory in a cognitively appropriate way
end state (of problem-solving): the point at which, according to Newell and Simon, a problem is solved
endocrine glands: glands that secrete their product (hormones) directly into the blood rather than through a duct
environment: the total external context in which an individual exists, including physical and social factors
enzymatic metabolism: the conversion of neurotransmitter substance into metabolites by enzymes
episodic memory: the memory system which deals with information about the events or episodes in life
epistemology: the study of the nature of knowledge, and of how knowledge can be generated. Different epistemologies suggest different ways of knowing, and hence different research methods
equilibration: a term used by Piaget to describe the balance between experiences and the understanding of these experiences, a discrepancy provides a motivation for discovery and investigation
equity theory: in any social interaction, the idea that liking is dependent upon one’s interpretation of the input-output ratio for the self and for the other person. If the relative input-output ratios are equal, liking will resulterror bars: error bars are used to indicate how much variation is associated with each data point on a graph. Error bars can denote different types of variation such as the standard deviation, standard error or a confidence interval
ethnocentrism: the view that one’s own cultural beliefs and practices represent a norm that other cultures should conform to
ethology: the study of behaviour and its evolutionary causes
evaluation apprehension model: presence of others results in drive because people have learned to be apprehensive about being evaluated by othersexchange errors: errors in speech production which involve words or parts of words exchanging places in the utterance
excitation transfer theory: a psychological process in which arousal caused by one stimulus is transferred and added to arousal elicited by a second stimulus
excitation-transfer approach: aggression is the result of learned behaviour, excitation or arousal from another source and the interpretation of this arousalexcitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP): temporary depolarisation of a neuron. They are graded, with larger ones increasing the probability of producing an action potential (see also inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP))
executive functioning: higher-order mental processes concerned with the co-ordination of other cognitive processes such as inhibition and memory
executive self: the recognition that one is able to influence one’s environment
expectancy effects: an improvement in a client’s condition following psychological treatment simply because they ‘expected’ the treatment to make them better
expectancy theory: a cognitive theory of work motivation that proposes that workers are motivated when they expect their efforts and job performance to result in desired outcomes
expectancy-value approach: states that decision-making is based on a person’s expectancies that they will receive a particular outcome, and the value (or valence) that the person attaches to the outcome
expected utility: the product of the value of an outcome (e.g. the amount of money that can be won) and the probability of that outcome occurring (e.g. remote)
experimental control: the taking of steps to ensure that the only thing that varies in an experiment is the independent variable manipulated by the experimenter. If other factors vary in an experiment then these may confound the results of the study, meaning that we can’t be sure that the independent variable caused any change in the dependent variable
experimental hypothesis: see alternative hypothesis
experimental reductionism: an approach to investigation that emphasises the need to reduce complex phenomena to simple effects that can be investigated experimentally
experimental research: in psychological terms, research in which variables are systematically manipulated to see their effect on naturally-occurring behaviour/cognitions/physiological responses
expertise: a ‘fuzzy’ concept referring to the point in skill acquisition at which a person can be considered to know more and/or be more able to solve a problem more easily than most of his/her peers
explicit processes: processes which require intent and conscious recollection to search for and retrieve information from memory
explicit: term used by Karmiloff-Smith and others to describe the ability to use speech to describe cognitive representations used in problem solving and other tasks
exposure therapy: a collective term for those therapies that treat psychopathology by exposing the client to the stimuli or events that make them anxious or apprehensive
expressed emotion (EE): a measure of the ‘amount’ of emotion displayed, typically in the family setting, usually by a family or caretakers of those with a psychopathology, and is viewed as a factor causing relapse in psychopathologies such as schizophrenia
external locus of control: a concept initially used to describe a situation in which outcomes are believed to be determined by chance
exteroceptive stimulus: in associative learning, an external stimulus like a light or tone (see also interoceptive stimulus)
extinction therapies: a collective term for those behaviour therapies that are based on the classical conditioning principle of extinction
extinction: in associative learning, the cessation of responding as a result of the absence of a reinforcer or unconditioned stimulus
extracellular fluid: body fluid outside of cells (see also intracellular fluid)
extracellular thirst: caused by a reduction in the volume of fluid found between cells
extraneous variables: any variable, measured or otherwise, that is not the primary predictor variable of interest that has an influence over the outcome variable
extrapyramidal system: a motor system that comprises of the basal ganglia and the cerebellum
extrinsic motivation: the desire or push to perform a certain behaviour based on the potential external rewards that may be received as a result
extroversion: marked by interest in and behaviour directed toward others or the environment as opposed to or to the exclusion of self; gregarious or outgoing